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tonneau at extra cost. Weighing in at only twelve hundred pounds, it was propelled by a four-cylinder, 20-horsepower engine that was crank-started. The car could achieve a maximum speed of forty-five miles per hour on a smooth, straight road. Its steering wheel and controls were located on the left side instead of the right, a logical place for them in a country where vehicles drove on the right side of the road (this innovation was adopted by all carmakers within a few years). The engine, transmission, flywheel, and universal joint were all enclosed within one case, which was lubricated by a splash-and-gravity oil system. Unlike earlier automobiles, the Model T featured an engine whose four cylinders were not cast separately but drilled into a solid block covered by a single, detachable cylinder head. A three-point suspension system gave the car great flexibility, and a high clearance offered much forgiveness in navigating rough, rutted American roads.
    The Model T presented three pedals to the driver—one for forward motion, one for reverse motion, and a brake. A multiuse hand lever served many functions—releasing the clutch in one position, putting the car into high speed in another, and serving as an emergency brake when pulled completely back. The unique planetary transmission was a vast improvement over earlier systems for gear shifting; an ingenious magneto was incorporated into the flywheel to supply current for the ignition and the lights. The car was simplicity itself in terms of its basic systems, and any driver handy with a screwdriver, pair of pliers, wrench set, and some wire could repair most problems and get the car up and running in the event of breakdown. Perhaps best of all, the modest price for the Model T—the earliest model sold for $850, and the price fell steadily in succeeding years—made it affordable for many consumers.
    Aside from its technical features and attractive price, one habit of the Model T caused it to appear almost lifelike to many of its owners. When the car was crank-started, its planetary transmission created a subtle forward movement that warmed many a heart. In the sentimental words of one owner:
    …there was always, in the Model T, a certain dull rapport between engine and wheels, and even when the car was in a state known as neutral, it trembled with a deep imperative and tended to inch forward. There was never a moment when the bands were not faintly egging the machine on…. Often, if the emergency brake hadn't been pulled all the way back, the car advanced on you the instant the first explosion occurred and you would hold it back by leaning your weight against it. I can still feel my old Ford nuzzling me at the curb, as though looking for an apple in my pocket. 13
    Once the prototype was approved by Ford, the Model T went into production, late in 1908. P. E. Martin and his assistant, Charles Sorensen, masterminded a reorganization of the Piquette Avenue plant and its production process as “operation sheets” were prepared, machine requirements were calculated, new equipment was purchased, new tools were designed, and floor layout was improved. Perhaps most important, a stock-control department was established to regulate the flow of parts and maintain steady production. The company hired new workers, till by mid-1909 it employed some twenty-two hundred individuals, a fourfold increase over the previous year. In other words, the “universal car” forced a swift systemization of the Ford Motor Company. As Sorensen later noted, “The Model T just drove us into this planning so that by 1909 we realized what it meant to have an organization.” 14
    As production of the new automobile began, in late 1908, Ford took to the factory floor to prod and inspire his workers. Kidding with the men, he would shake his head in mock discouragement and declare, “I wonder if we'll get up to number ten.” Company accountant George Brown, many years later, recalled witnessing Ford's