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exchange gases, release toxins, and take in fresh oxygen.
    Depth of respiration is very important. A girth that is too tight restricts the expansion of the rib cage.An improperly fitted saddle and a rider’s tense legs also restrict the expansion of the rib cage, consequently limiting lung capacity.
    Muscular problems such as chronic stress points (small spasms) and trigger points (areas of lactic acid buildup) will restrict the muscle action required to expand and contract the rib cage. (The recuperation massage routine in chapter 6 is designed to assist this problem.) Massage will help release any undue tension and relieve stress and trigger points around the rib cage, thus allowing for deeper breathing. (The stress point check-up massage routine in chapter 10 is designed to help you recognize potential stress point locations in and around the rib cage area.)
    Massage indirectly assists in the oxygenation of tissues by increasing circulation throughout the body. Massage also relaxes the nervous system, thus allowing for deeper and steadier breathing, and better oxygen/CO gas exchange.
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    The Circulatory System
    The circulatory system consists of the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system. Circulation has a number of functions:
    ❖ Distributing oxygen and nutrients to every cell of a horse’s body.
    ❖ Carrying antibodies to fight infections that invade the body.
    ❖ Removing metabolic waste and carbon dioxide.
    ❖ Distributing heat throughout the body, thereby regulating the horse’s temperature.

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    Equine Massage
    1.3 Circulatory System
    (1) heart
    (2) pulmonary artery
    (3) lungs
    (4) pulmonary vein
    (5) artery
    (6) blood capillaries
    (7) vein
    (8) lymph capillaries
    (9) lymphatic vessel
    (10) lymph node
    The Cardiovascular System
    The bulk of circulatory work is done by the cardiovascular system, which is made up of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, and the blood that flows through them.This is a closed-circuit system.
    Arterial blood carries oxygen, nutrients, immune defense agents, glandular secretions, and blood-clotting agents throughout the body. Arterial blood circulation is generated by the pumping action of the heart and the contraction of the arterial wall muscles.
    The normal heart rate at rest is 28 to 40 beats per minute, and up to between 210 and 280 beats per minute during exercise.The heart forces blood into the arteries, to the arterioles (smaller arteries) and then to the capillaries (minute blood vessels in the tissues), where the oxygen/carbon dioxide and nutrients/waste exchanges occur.
    The blood returns via the venules (small veins) to the veins, to the heart, to the lungs, then back again to the heart for another cycle into the arteries. The venous blood transports metabolic waste and carbon dioxide from the cells of the tissues to the heart and lungs (where the oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange takes place).The venous return of blood is assisted by the movement of the large locomotor muscle groups of the body.Veins are equipped with little cuplike valves to prevent the backward flow of blood.
    Each muscle contraction squeezes the venous blood in one direction, toward the heart.
    Normal functioning of all body tissue depends on the proper circulation of blood. However, after an injury it is even more Anatomy and Physiology of the Horse
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    important that an adequate supply of blood—bearing nutrients, oxygen, and healing material—reaches the site of injury. The blood will also remove waste, debris, or any toxins formed as a result of the injury.
    The circulatory system controls the horse’s body temperature.
    When the body is cold, the capillaries in those parts of the body farthest away from the heart constrict. Blood circulation is therefore reduced in the extremities, keeping most of the blood at the body’s core in order to warm vital organs (brain, heart, and lungs.) Conversely, if the body is hot, the capillaries dilate, allowing more blood through the capillaries