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pair of kidneys, the ureters, the bladder, and the urethra. The kidneys provide a blood-filtering system to remove many waste products, and to control water balance, pH, and the level of many electrolytes. The kidney filtrate is urine, which is conveyed to the bladder by the 2 ureters. From there it is evacu-ated via the urethra. Proper urinary functioning avoids kidney failure and all its consequences: swelling, toxicity, and weight loss.
    The Reproductive System
    The reproductive system ensures the continuation of the species.
    The male reproductive system consists of the testicles, the acces-sory glands and ducts, and the external genital organ. The female reproductive system consists of the ovaries, oviducts, uterus,

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    Equine Massage
    Anatomy and Physiology of the Horse
    17
    ular
    h)
    d tarsal
    th tarsal
    anial and
    k or seat bone)
    agalus or tib-
    k or tuber
    ur (cr
    [m] thir
    [n] four
    uttoc
    ur
    al tarsal bone
    m),
    m),
    [h] talus (astr
    [k] centr
    ur
    hanter of fem
    t)
    yle of fem
    yle of tibia
    k),
    [j] calcaneus (os calcis or fib
    [l] fused first and second tarsal
    h
    al (point of croup)
    xae (point of hip or haunc
    hii (point of b
    al cond
    al cond
    al malleolus of tibia
    hium
    ur
    ula
    caudal par
    ial bone),
    tarsal bone),
    (scaphoid),
    bones (small cuneifor
    bone (great cuneifor
    bone (cuboid)
    calcis)
    (45) costal arc
    (46) tuber sacr
    (47) tuber co
    (48) tuber isc
    (49) ilium
    (50) pubis
    (51) isc
    (52) fem
    (53) head of fem
    (54) greater troc
    (55) later
    (56) patella
    (57) tibia
    (58) later
    (59) later
    (60) fib
    (61) tarsus (hoc
    (62) tuber calcanei (point of hoc
    (63) cannon (large metatarsal)
    pal
    pal
    y
    amidalyr
    adial
    pal bone (os
    [c] r
    adius
    pal bone)
    d car
    d phalanx)
    mediate car
    [d] accessor
    [e] second car
    pal bone (unci-
    num
    pal bone)
    pal bone (p
    m),
    [f] thir
    th car
    [b] inter
    yle of humerus
    oid),
    m),
    [g] four
    n bone (first phalanx)
    n bone (second phalanx)
    tilage of ster
    adius
    apez
    tilage
    al cond
    anon process of the ulna (point of
    al styloid process of r
    t paster
    pus [a] ulnar car
    pal bone (scaphoid),
    pal bone (pisifor
    m)
    ximal sesamoid bones (paired)
    num (breastbone)
    elbow)
    adius
    or cuneifor
    bone (lunate or semilunar),
    car
    car
    bone (tr
    magnum),
    for
    ib
    (26) deltoid tuberosity of humerus
    (27) later
    (28) olecr
    (29) ulna
    (30) r
    (31) head of r
    (32) later
    (33) car
    (34) cannon (large metacar
    (35) splint bone (small metacar
    (36) pro
    (37) long paster
    (38) shor
    (39) pedal or coffin bone (thir
    (40) distal sesamoid bone (navicular bone)
    (41) ster
    (42) xiphoid car
    (43) r
    (44) costal car
    vi-
    a)
    essels
    y 18]
    a
    for passage of
    ae]
    ertebr
    idge)
    lood v
    ertebr
    a
    ertebr
    vical v
    erse process of fifth cer
    amina,
    ae [18]
    ae [usuall
    ae [6]
    h
    ae [7]
    ertebr
    vical v
    ansv
    a
    al for
    ves and b
    ertebr
    ertebr
    ertebr
    ertebr
    acic v
    le
    first cer
    ertebr
    vertebr
    ,
    acic v
    aspinous fossa of scapula
    aspinous fossa of scapula
    k of scapula
    vical v
    Skeleton of the Horse
    anium
    cal v
    spinal ner
    1.5
    (1) cr
    (2) mandib
    (3) zygomatic arc
    (4) poll
    (5) teeth
    (6) bar
    (7) cer
    (8) atlas
    (9) wings of atlas
    (10) axis (second cer
    (11) expanded tr
    (12) inter
    (13) thor
    (14) last thor
    (15) lumbar v
    (16) sacrum [5 fused v
    (17) coccygeal v
    (18) scapula
    (19) scapular spine (bone r
    (20) supr
    (21) infr
    (22) nec
    (23) humerus
    (24) head of humerus
    (25) point of shoulder

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    Equine Massage
    vagina, and external genitalia. Proper fluid circulation and relaxation of the nervous system will ensure peak performance for reproduction purposes.
    The Skeletal System
    The skeletal system serves as a framework for the horse’s body, giving the muscles something to work against, and defining the animal’s overall size and shape. The skeleton also protects the horse’s vital internal tissues and organs. For example, the skull protects the brain; the rib cage protects the lungs and heart; the vertebral column protects the spinal cord.The