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the Romans’ decisions concerning the internal affairs of their city; in this book I shall speak of the decisions that the people of Rome made concerning the expansion of their empire.
148. Saracen sect: the Muslim Ottoman Turks who invaded and ultimately destroyed the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.

Selections from
T HE A RT OF W AR
    The Art of War is a richly woven work on military tactics, politics, and the philosophy of war. Machiavelli wrote it in 1519 or 1520, and it is his only political work published in his lifetime. Though since its first publication in English L’Arte della Guerra has been known as “The Art of War,” a more correct rendering of the title might be “The Craft of War.”
    Machiavelli wrote this work at a time when Italy — and Florence in particular — was beset by wars and international intrigue. He regarded these ills as caused by political and military blunders. As in The Prince and The Discourses, the message of The Art of War is that ancient history — particularly the Roman model — could be relied upon as a paradigm to bring Renaissance Italy out of its dire straits. Though in his preface Machiavelli professes that “it is an audacious act for a man like myself to take up matters of which he has no professional experience,” one must be careful not to take him at his word; as Secretary of the Second Chancery in the Republican government of Florence he was responsible for military strategy .
    Machiavelli divided The Art of War into a preface and seven books, presenting the narrative in a series of dialogues between the great mercenary general Fabrizio Colonna and a company of young Florentine noblemen. Machiavelli gives Colonna lengthy monologues in which Machiavelli’s ideas and philosophy are systematically presented. Modern scholars have argued that Machiavelli was weak as a practical military strategist and that he underestimated the degree to which firearms and artillery would shape the future of warfare. But for centuries after its first publication , The Art of War was extremely influential, military leaders relying upon it for strategy. In Voltaire’s words: “Machiavelli taught Europe the art of war.”

P REFACE

BOOK VII
    FABRIZIO: […] I know that I have spoken to you of many things that you could have understood yourselves. And yet I spoke of these matters, as I said earlier this afternoon, in order to demonstrate better what kind of military training is best, and also to satisfy those (should there be any) who do not understand these matters as readily as you do. It seems to me that there is nothing left for me to say, other than to give you some general rules which I am sure you will find familiar. 23 They are:
    What benefits the enemy will harm you, and what benefits you will harm the enemy.
    He who in war is more vigilant in scrutinizing the enemy’s designs, and more tireless in training his army, will face fewer dangers and have greater hope for victory.
    Never lead your soldiers into battle before you are certain of their courage, that they are without fear, and that they are well ordered. Do not engage your troops unless you can see that they hope for victory.
    It is better to defeat the enemy with hunger than with steel, for in victory with steel you will see Fortune playing a greater role than skill.
    The best strategy is that which remains concealed from the enemy until it has been carried out.
    In war, knowing how to recognize and seize an opportunity is the most important ability.
    Nature creates few brave men—diligence and training create many.
    Discipline in war is more vital than fury.
    Soldiers leaving the enemy’s side to come to yours are an optimal acquisition if they are loyal, because the forces of your enemy diminish more with the loss of those who desert than with those who are slain, even though the word “deserter” wakes suspicion in new friends and hatred in old.
    It is better when arranging your formations to set up considerable