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1989): 77–102; Trotter,
Coal, Class, and Color
, chap. 1.
    14. Theda Perdue,
Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 1580–1866
(Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979).
    15. Edward J. Phifer, “Slavery in Microcosm: Burke County, North Carolina,”
Journal of Southern History
28 (May 1962): 137–65; John C. Inscoe,
Mountain Masters: Slavery and the Sectional Crisis in Western North Carolina
(Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1989), chaps. 1–3; J Susanne S. Simmons, “Augusta County’s Other Pioneers: The African American Presence in Frontier Augusta County [Va.],” in
Diversity and Accommodation: Essays on the Cultural Composition of the Virginia Frontier
, ed. Michael J. Puglisi (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1997), 159–71; Ellen Eslinger, “The Shape of Slavery on Virginia’s Kentucky Frontier, 1775–1800,”
Diversity and Accommodation
, ed. Puglisi, 172–94.
    16. Phifer, “Slavery in Microcosm,” 139–42; Inscoe,
Mountain Masters
, chap. 3; Kenneth W. Noe,
Southwest Virginia’s Railroad: Modernization and the Sectional Crisis
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), chap. 4; Mary Beth Pudup, “Social Class and Economic Development in Southeastern Kentucky, 1820–1880,” in
Appalachian Frontiers: Settlement, Society, and Development in the Pre-Industrial Era
, ed. Robert D. Mitchell (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 235–60.
    17. Inscoe,
Mountain Masters
, 70.
    18. James S. Buckingham,
The Slave States of America
, 2:193, quoted in ibid., 70.
    19. Frederick Law Olmsted,
A Journey in the Back Country in the Winter of 1853–54
(New York: Mason Bros., 1860), 254, 226–27.
    20. Charles Lanman,
Letters from the Allegheny Mountains
(New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849), 314.
    21. Stealey,
Kanawha Salt Business
, chap. 2. On Clay County, Kentucky, see Kathleen M. Blee and Dwight B. Billings,
The Road to Poverty: The Making of Wealth and Hardship in Appalachia
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Blee and Billings, “Race and the Roots of Appalachian Poverty: Clay County, Kentucky, 1850–1910,” in
Appalachians and Race
, ed. Inscoe, 165–88.
    22. Lewis,
Black Coal Miners in America
, chap. 1.
    23. On the North Carolina gold rush, see Edward W. Phifer Jr., “Champagne at Brindletown: The Story of the Burke County Gold Rush, 1829–1833,”
North Carolina Historical Review
40 (Oct. 1963): 489–500; Inscoe,
Mountain Masters
, 71–73, 92–98. On Georgia, see David W. Williams,
The Georgia Gold Rush: Twenty-niners, Cherokees, and Gold Fever
(Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1993); Williams, “Georgia’s Forgotten Miners: African Americans and the Georgia Gold Rush of 1829,” in
Appalachians and Race
, ed. Inscoe, 40–49.
    24. John E. Stealey, “Slavery in the Kanawha Salt Industry,” in
Appalachians and Race
, ed. Inscoe, 51–54; Inscoe,
Mountain Masters
, 76–81; Susanne J. Simmons and Nancy T. Sorrells, “Slave Hire and the Development of Slavery in Augusta County, Virginia,” in
After the Backcountry: Rural Life in the Great Valley of Virginia, 1800–1900
, ed. Kenneth E. Koons and Warren R. Hofstra (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2000), 169–84.
    25. Kenneth W. Noe, “‘A Source of Great Economy?’ The Railroad and Slavery’s Expansion in Southwest Virginia, 1850–1860,” in
Appalachians and Race
, ed. Inscoe, 101–15; Inscoe,
Mountain Masters
, 79–81.
    26. Wilma A. Dunaway, “Diaspora, Death, and Sexual Exploitation: Slave Families at Risk in the Mountain South,”
Appalachian Journal
26 (Winter 1999): 128–49. See also Dunaway’s overview of the slave trade in Appalachia, “‘Put in Master’s Pocket’: Cotton Expansion and Interstate Slave Trading in the Mountain South,” in
Appalachians and Race
,