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agreed to drop the phrase “and the Son” only if the Eastern churches acknowledged the pope’s absolute supremacy over all Christendom. The Bishop of Constantinople, Photius, was offended at his “offer” and the gap between the East and West grew wider.
    Then, in the summer of 1054, Pope Leo IX issued a papal bull (a formal declaration and notice) of various “unacceptable” practices of the Eastern Church, such as allowing priests to marry and not recognizing baptisms performed in the Western Church. This led to both sides issuing letters of excommunications against the other. 1 Thus, 1054 is considered the year of the official break between what would be called the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, a break that has continued to the present day.
Monks and Monasteries
    In a rather unfazed manner, clusters of Christians throughout Europe gathered together with differing agendas and vows. Many of these houses or “monasteries” became centers of education and service. Monks became a standard addition to the Christian church in the early 4 th century. Famous monks down through history—Anthony of Egypt (251-356), Augustine of Hippo (354-430), Anthony the Hermit (c.468-c.520), Benedict (c.480-543), Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153), Bruno of Cologne (c.1030-1101), Francis of Assisi (1181/1182-1226), and Dominic de Guzmán (1170-1221)—have each made a lasting impression on both ancient and modern-day religious orders and monastic communities. Today, there are hundreds of monasteries and religious orders all around the world. Many of them intentionally separate themselves from the world to be devoted to study, prayer, contemplation, and service. Can you think of any benefits of this way of living?
The Crusades (1095-1291)
    Since the rise of Islam in the 7 th century, the Muslims had militarily conquered the historic Christian cities and lands, significantly Jerusalem. Pope Urban II (1042-1099) called a special council together in 1095—the Council of Clermont—to address the possibility of re-taking those lands back from the Muslims. The people approved with Deus vult (“God will it!”) and for the next four months, emissaries travelled all over Europe for the purpose of recruiting soldiers.
    The response was tremendous! Kings and nobles, peasants and foot soldiers all joined the mission. Many of these recruits were previous enemies and had even been at war with each other! But none of that mattered anymore; they were intent on re-taking the land for Christ and (for some) getting a free pass to heaven from the pope.
    When Urban II launched the First Crusade in 1095, little did he know that it would end in a 200-year failure. From 1095 to 1291, Christians throughout Europe engaged in a total of seven major crusades and numerous smaller battles. While the intentions of some might have been grand—many believing they were setting out on a holy pilgrimage—their actions throughout the conflict were less so. It was a dark period in the history of the church and unlike the Muslims—who acted according to teachings of the Qur’an—many of the Crusaders did not act according to the teachings of the Bible.
    The Crusaders took back Jerusalem, but the Muslims again recaptured it, and so it went. But the Muslims weren’t the only ones who received the brutal treatment at the hands of the Crusaders. Jews and other non-Christians were also slaughtered, burned, and pillaged. After the Crusaders were defeated during the Third Crusade (1189-1192), Pope Innocent III rallied for a fourth try. Interestingly, merchants in Venice agreed to supply the next army with ships at the cost of 84,000 silver coins. However, only one-third of the expected number of Crusaders showed up and they were 34,000 coins short! How would they pay for the ships?
    A wealthy Eastern prince offered to supply the remaining amount under one condition: the Crusaders had to travel to Constantinople and dethrone the emperor (who he