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Marine. These certificates were first issued by the Board of Trade in 1845, and were made compulsory for all captains and watch-standing officers after 1850.
    A Master’s certificate—“ticket” was the popular parlance—meant that the holder was fully qualified to stand watches and make decisions about the speed, safety, and navigation of a ship without having to consult with and obtain the approval of a senior officer. Earning a Master’s ticket not only required several years of experience at sea, it also meant sitting for a grueling Board of Trade examination in which the applicant would be tested on his knowledge of shiphandling, lading, navigation, and safety at sea. An applicant had to be 21 years of age to be eligible to sit for the examination, and if he passed, his ticket would be endorsed for either sail or steam.
    The written examination was daunting. The candidate would be expected to determine latitude by the altitude of the Polar star at any time; determine latitude by the meridian altitude of the moon; find the magnetic bearing of any fixed object when at sea or at anchor; to construct deviation curves; explain the effect of a ship’s iron or steel hull on the compasses, as well as correct for it; show a practical knowledge of the use of charts in navigation, including course corrections required by currents; and how to use and correct depth soundings. If the candidate was sitting for a sailing master’s examination, he would be required to demonstrate his knowledge of making and taking in sail, whether in moderate and stormy weather. All applicants would have to show that they were familiar with the rules of the road at sea for both steamers and sailing vessels, including their regulation lights and fog and sound signals; and be able to describe the signals of distress, the signals to be made by ships wanting a pilot, and the liabilities and penalties incurred by the misuse of these signals. In particular he would have to show that he understood the use of rockets if his ship was in distress.
    An oral examination would follow, where the candidate would be expected to show that he had a thorough and practical knowledge of an incredible range of subjects, beginning with the law as it applied to hiring, discharging, and managing a crew; the law regarding load-line marks, as well as how to complete the appropriate reports in respect to lading; and the entries to be made in the ship’s official log. Other questions would cover how to prevent and check an outbreak of scurvy on board ship; invoices, bills of lading, dealing with Lloyd’s of London agents; the prevailing winds and currents of any part of the globe, as well as the trade routes and tides. Finally, he would have to be prepared to answer any other relevant questions which the Examiner might ask.
    While all of this may seem a bit tedious, or even mundane, nothing could better demonstrate the bewildering range of responsibilities which a ship’s master faced on each and every sailing. The examination for an Extra Master’s ticket was even more demanding, as it would cover both steamships and sailing vessels, regardless of what the applicant’s previous experience might be. But possession of an Extra Master’s certificate literally was a “ticket” for an ambitious merchant marine officer, for it was an unchallengeable endorsement of competence, and as such allowed its holder to grasp the rungs of the ladder of promotion which could lead to one day being given command of one of the most famous vessels in the world.
    In the years after Rostron joined Cunard, he rose steadily, if unspectacularly, up the company ladder. This was not a reflection on Rostron’s abilities, for Cunard captains were expected to be conscientious and circumspect—but never spectacular. It was with as much truth as wit that Mark Twain had once summed up Cunard’s attitude when he observed, “The Cunard people would not take Noah as first mate until they had worked