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tradition (that is, the account of the days leading up to the crucifixion of Jesus), stories of healing and conflict, parables, and other teachings. The shortest of the Gospels, Mark was likely one of the sources for Matthew and Luke; the Gospel of John may reflect an indirect knowledge of Mark, but it is also possibly independent. Mark reflects a rich use of scripture (the Bible was that used by Jews, in Greek translation, and given the traditional abbreviation LXX [Septuagint] in the annotations that follow), but a few texts—Daniel, Isaiah, Deuteronomy, Zechariah, and some of the Psalms—are quoted often and may have been known from collections of favorite passages (“testimonia”) or from oral tradition. These texts were also among the most popular with various Jewish groups of the time, as shown for instance by their presence (sometimes in multiple copies) among the Dead Sea Scrolls and in later rabbinic citations.
    As to the location of its writing, cogent arguments have been made for Rome, where early tradition (see Papias, above) placed Mark as the assistant to Peter, but also for southern Galilee, northern Galilee, or Antioch in southern Syria (see map, p. 60 ). It is also possible that Mark spent much of his life in Jerusalem, even if he did not write from there. Of these possibilities, a composition in the region of Antioch in Syria is perhaps the most likely.
    STYLE AND CONTENT
    While Mark quotes Jewish Scriptures often and generally places Jesus’ and John the Baptist’s preaching within the range of Jewish religious concepts (on possible exceptions see annotations), like some groups within Judaism, Mark expresses ambivalence or even antagonism to Jewish religion centered upon the Temple in Jerusalem (see annotations to 11.12–25). Mark follows in a Jewish tradition, heightened in apocalyptic texts, in which election and forgiveness pass from “this generation” to the new community (9.19n.). Mark also follows in the tradition of Amos, Isaiah 1, Micah 6, and some other prophets in presenting a stronger critique of economic inequality than do the other Gospels.
    Although Mark presents an earthly Jesus and not the heavenly mediator emphasized in Paul’s letters, Mark and Paul share several important themes: the centrality of faith, the emphasis on Jesus’ death rather than his resurrection, reservations about Peter’s importance and role, and an emphasis on the present community’s needs over apocalyptic hopes. They both contain passages that assert that all foods are clean (Mk 7.19; Rom 14.20). Yet the “Gentile focus” of Mark is not as certain as it was once held to be. In this Gospel Jesus goes to Gentile areas (i.e., the region of Tyre) where he engages individual Gentiles such as the Syrophoenician woman (7.24–30), “cleanses” all foods, and says that the good news must be announced to all nations. However all of these things, even the apocalyptic cleansing of formerly impure items, are found in Jewish tradition, and some have roots in Jewish Scriptures (cleansing of a man with leprosy, 2 Kings 5.1–14; cleansing of formerly impure items, Zech 14.20–21). Further, the evidence that is often adduced that Mark was a Gentile or advocated a mission without the law is ambiguous. Mark’s apparent inaccuracy on Jewish practices and his statement that Jesus “cleansed all foods” (7.3–4,19) does not appear in the parallel story in Matthew, and v. 19 does not relate precisely to the question being debated. The passages may have been inserted into the text after Mark’s writing (see “Impurity and Healing,” p. 63 ). In addition, Mark’s counting of days from sunrise instead of sundown (14.1,12) is unusual, but not unknown in ancient Judaism (see annotation at 14.1–2). Just as it is not clear where Mark was written, it is also not clear whether Mark was Jewish or Gentile, whether the first audience of the Gospel was predominantly Jewish or Gentile, or whether Mark advocated the