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both. I asked her what else she could realistically request that her manager would be unwilling to grant. She thought for a minute, and came up with a specific request: a 10-percent pay increase. I suggested that she include this monetary item with her other requests, to give her something to exchange for the two things she really wanted. When she finally met with her manager, he was relieved to give her the two terms she preferred—once she retreated with respect to the pay raise he did not wish to grant! Once she demonstrated her competence in the higher position, she did obtain a modest salary increase.
    F ORMULATE A RGUMENTS TO S UPPORT Y OUR P OSITIONS
    Once you have a firm sense of what items are to be negotiated and have the largest possible number of items on that list, prepare cogent arguments to support each one. (That’s right, each and every one!) Negotiators who provide persuasive arguments to support the issues they want resolved in a certain way are always more likely to prevail. In addition, if you do this, you will exude a quiet confidence in your own positions that will cause less prepared counterparts to doubt the validity of their own positions.
    When you prepare arguments for the items you want, it is imperative that you try to anticipate the arguments your opponents are likely to make. This is true for two reasons: You are unlikely to have your confidence undermined when confronted by claims that you anticipate. In addition, if you accurately predict the arguments your counterparts will advance, you can prepare effective counter-arguments against them.
    In commercial negotiations, it is especially helpful to obtain a thorough understanding of the value of the items to be discussed. You may have to do some preliminary comparison shopping to ascertain the typical price range for particular goods or models. For many items, such as cars or services, a perusal of appropriate newspaper or trade journal advertisements may provide sufficient information. Internet shopping services can also be quite useful.
    When you are negotiating employment terms, research critical information regarding the compensation plans of your target organization. Seek not only salary data but also fringe benefit packages. On occasion you might find some public information about comparative compensation programs within a field or profession. However, in most cases involving private firms, public salary information is rarely available. Industry studies or friends employed by other companies within the same industry may be able to provide useful figures. If you know people working at the specific firm involved, asking them to provide relevant information is reasonable, as long as you agree not to disclose your source.
    The Intelligent Negotiator formulates proposals that are beneficial to both sides. So after you have formulated arguments in support of your positions, develop an understanding of your bargaining counterparts’ needs and interests. What are the factors that will induce yourcounterparts to give you what you hope to achieve? If sales of commercial items are down, retailers may be anxious to make quick sales. If it is near the end of the month or the model year, car dealers may have corporate rebates and corporate incentives encouraging fast deals. How long have particular houses been on the market? The longer they have been available, the more likely it is that sellers have begun to lower their sights in an effort to get on with their lives. Have the sellers already purchased another home elsewhere, generating great financial pressure to take this house off their hands?
    When you negotiate with family members, friends, or professional colleagues, intangible interests are often more important than tangible terms. Fairness is one such intangible item. For example, if you got to select last year’s vacation destination, deferring to your spouse’s desires with respect to this year’s choice may be the fair thing to do.