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ordinary metals like copper, iron, and zinc? To help answer that question, let me take you to Rome, where a research team studied sixty-four women. 3 All were over age fifty but perfectly healthy. The researchers drew blood samples to measure copper in their blood and then gave them a variety of tests to check their memory, reasoning, language comprehension, and ability to concentrate.
    Now, overall the women did just fine. None had any majorimpairment. But some did noticeably better than others on one test or another. And
those who had the least mental difficulties turned out to be those with lower levels of copper in their blood.
They had adequate copper for the body’s needs but were free of excesses, and that apparently did them a big favor. The difference was especially noticeable on tests that required focused attention.
    A study of sixty-four women is not especially large. So let’s next drop in on a research team at the University of California at San Diego that evaluated a much larger group, this one consisting of 1,451 people in Southern California. 4 They found much the same thing. People who had lower copper levels in their blood were mentally clearer compared with those with excessive copper. They had fewer problems with short-term and long-term memory. And the same held true for iron. People with less iron in their blood had fewer memory problems.
    So even though both iron and copper are essential in tiny amounts, having too much of either one in your bloodstream seems to spell trouble.
    If this sounds surprising, it did not entirely surprise the researchers. Every medical student knows that copper is potentially toxic. Your body uses tiny amounts of it in enzymes for various functions, but the amount you need is extremely small. If you get too much of this unstable metal, it can oxidize and encourage free radicals to form. In fact, the only thing that stops copper from destroying your health early in life is that your liver filters much of it out of your blood and eliminates it. In a rare genetic condition called Wilson’s disease, the liver is unable to eliminate copper normally. As copper builds up in the body tissues, it damages the central nervous system and causes all manner of other problems.
    Similarly, excess iron has long been known to cause potentiallyserious health problems. More on iron in a minute. But first, let’s deal with copper and understand what it is doing to our brains.
    I should tell you that copper may contribute to much more serious problems than the minor variations in memory and cognition seen in the Rome and San Diego studies. Starting in 1993, a research team from Rush University Medical Center went door-to-door in three Chicago neighborhoods, aiming to track down the causes of health problems that occur as we age. They invited 6,158 people to join the Chicago Health and Aging Project, and eventually another 3,000 joined in, as well.
    The researchers carefully recorded what the volunteers ate. Like people everywhere, some were health conscious, while others were not so particular. The research team then kept in touch with everyone over the years to see who stayed well and who did not—who kept their mental clarity and who had memory problems. They then looked to see if any part of the diet could have predicted who might fall prey to memory loss.
    Now, many of the participants got adequate copper in their diets, without excesses. As the years went by, they generally did well on the cognitive tests the researchers gave them. But other participants got quite a bit more of it. Needless to say, none of them were worrying about anything so insignificant as copper. Who would even have known it was in foods, anyway? But as time went on, a particular combination seemed to be especially harmful. Those whose diets included fair amounts of copper along with certain “bad” fats—the fats found in animal products and snack foods—showed a loss of mental function that was the equivalent