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protrude. This kept a very sharp, hard edge, but with a soft back that could absorb shock. They also tried the reverse, with a soft core encased in high carbon steel. This served the same purpose.
     
    Reproduction katana. HRC106.
     
    The Europeans used a different technique. They would twist bars of high carbon steel with bars of low carbon, rough shape the sword, and then weld on a high carbon edge. The purpose was the same, to give a hard edge with a core that could take the shock of a blow and not break.
    The two processes do not appear to have occurred at the same time. This method of manufacturing the katana is believed to have appeared about 1000 AD in Japan, and continues even today by some of the Living Treasures of Japan, those smiths who still forge superior swords. However, in Europe around 900 AD, smelting techniques had improved so that it was possible to get a cake of steel large enough to make a full steel sword. Not long after the debut of these swords, pattern welding as a method of making swords vanished, and all-steel swords began to appear.
    There is an interesting historical novelty here. The first all-steel swords have a distinct shape. The blade is wider at the hilt, and tapers somewhat to the point. This puts the weight of the sword closer to the hand, and thus makes it quicker. Also, all of these early blades are marked with the name "Ulfberht" in nice large letters. Shortly thereafter copies marked "Inglerii" appear. We don't know anything concrete about the significance of these names.
     
    Reproduction Ulfberht blade. HRC210.
     
    It is rather hard for me to write without digressing. There are so many aspects that need to be brought out, and so many tales about swords, that it's really hard to stay on course. But here I go, back to making the sword.
    After the sword was forged to shape it was filed, partially polished, and then hardened. This last was done by heating the sword to a bright red, and then immersing it in a tempering medium, in order of preference: water, brine, or oil, this last being more forgiving and easier on the steel. As soon as possible after the blade had been quench hardened, it was tempered.
    The sword at the end of the hardening process was extremely hard and brittle, and most blades tended to warp under the stress. However, since the crystalline structure of the metal was still unsettled, there was a 15-minute window of opportunity when the smith could straighten the blade without breaking it. Then came the tempering.
    The sword was heated to the desired temperature, usually around 400 to 500 degrees, and kept at that temperature for an appropriate time, so that the temperature is consistent throughout the blade. It was cooled quickly in the medium of choice.
    This produces a blade that is hard, yet also tough. By varying the amount of heat applied to the blade you can get varying degrees of hardness and flexibility. This frequently depended on how the sword was to be used as well as the length of the sword. A shorter weapon could be harder, as it would not be subjected to the same amount of torque as would a longer weapon. (Note that too much hardness could cause the edge to chip easily.) A longer weapon would have to have a greater degree of flexibility as simple leverage would add a great deal of force that would be applied to the blade in combat. The individual struck with a sword is highly unlikely to remain still, and his inconsiderate movements would place great stress on the blade.
    One of the favorite themes in fiction is a rapier so superbly tempered that the blade can be bent so that the point touches the hilt, and when released, springs back to true. I have such a sword at home, that I picked up in Toledo, Spain. It is pretty, in a rather garish fashion, and is completely worthless as a weapon. I sharpened the blade, and could not penetrate a cardboard box! The blade flops all over the place, and you can't cut with it or thrust. But it is flexible!
    Regardless