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ratification by the people. The consuls were further honored by having the year named after them; the Romans dated their years by the two consuls of the year. Thus, we read at the beginning of the fifth book of Caesar's Gallic Wars , "L. Domitio Ap. Claudio consulibus"that is, "during the consulship of Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius," which was 54 B.C.
The consuls were limited in their power by the term of office (one year), and by the veto both of the other consul at the time and of the tribunes (see below). The consuls depended upon the Senate for advice, for there were many ex-consuls in the Senate, and consuls who ignored the Senate found their administration hampered by its interference. Consuls were immune to prosecution while in office, and upon leaving office had to swear that they had done the state no harm. The minimum age for a consul was forty-two.
The Dictator
The dictator was appointed only during times of national crisis, when an enemy threatened Rome or its allies and the situation

 

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demanded prompt, unanimous, and decisive leadership of the Romans, or when the consuls were disabled or otherwise unable to perform their duties. The dictator's power was not subject to appeal or veto until after 300 B.C. , when a citizen gained the right to appeal a dictator's capital sentence. The supreme power held by the dictator was symbolized by his having twenty-four lictors (in contrast to the twelve lictors of each consul). The only check on his power was the duration of his rulesix months at the most. It was customary for the dictator to step down at the end of the crisis, before the six months had elapsed. The Senate recommended that a dictator be appointed, but the consuls actually nominated him; a law passed by the Comitia Centuriata installed the dictator in office. Because of the dictator's nearly unlimited power, the Romans did not entrust the dictatorship to any but the most highly respected among them. The dictator had an assistant, called the master of the horse ( magister equitum ), who commanded the cavalry; his imperium was shown by his twelve lictors.
The Censors
The two censors had no imperium , but their position was nonetheless a powerful one. They were in charge of the census, which was conducted every five years. The census involved not only counting the number of citizens but also assessing each man's wealth. The censors assigned each man to one of the classes and decided whether or not a senator had the amount of wealth necessary for that post. The censors also performed the lustrum at the end of the census.
Another duty of the censors was revision of the Senate lists. A senator who had lapsed in his morals could be struck from the list by the censors; for example, Cato, as censor in 184 B.C. , is said to have expelled one senator from the Senate because he had embraced his wife by daylight in the presence of their daughter. The censors supervised public morals and occasionally passed sumptuary laws (laws designed to curb the love of luxury). One such law, the Lex Orchia, limited the number of guests one could have at a party; another, passed by Julius Caesar, prevented Romans from eating foods deemed too decadent. The censors also

 

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awarded government contracts for, say, collecting taxes in the provinces or building bridges and roads. For example, Appius Claudius Caecus, censor in 312 B.C. , has been honored for thousands of years now with the fame of the road he built, the Via Appia (Appian Way), ancient Rome's main road to southern Italy. He also built Rome's first aqueduct, the Aqua Appia. The censors' term lasted eighteen months.
The Praetor
The praetor was mostly in charge of the courts (in fact, the body of Roman law consists mostly of praetorian edicts), but often commanded small armies. His imperium was less than that of the consuls; the praetors were seen as junior colleagues of the consuls. The praetor's imperium was symbolized by his six lictors. The praetor, like